In our October 2020 issue, focused on equity and inclusion, ICMA Executive Director Marc Ott wrote, “I think about the distance we’ve come…and about the expanse we have yet to travel on this journey that must end systemic racism and create inclusive communities.”

As you read the following articles—from 1972, 1975, and 1982—you may be struck by how some points made by the authors seem suspended in their moment of time, relics of a different era, but sadly, you will also see many similarities to the struggle our society is still experiencing today.

ICMA’s and the profession’s diversity journey continues to evolve. But it’s important to reflect on the past to then envision the way forward toward greater racial equity in local government leadership.

APRIL 1972 | On Being a Black City Manager

By Sylvester “Sy” Murray, City Manager, Inkster, Michigan

I chose municipal government because that is the level of government that most directly affects the daily living of most Americans. What happens in the statehouse is important. And, what policies and actions take place at the federal level also are important in providing a general framework that ensures a quality life for Americans.

But, many city dwellers have very little contact with the higher levels of governments. Income tax is paid by mail; a governor is elected every three or four years; a court and corrections system is provided—but it is something with which citizens prefer not to have contact.

City Hall is the place. The services to be rendered are direct and individual—an ambulance for an ill grandmother, an inspection of a rundown furnace in an apartment building, removal of a tree whose roots are entering the sewer and stopping up the house toilet, police response to a call from a child whose parents are nearly killing each other, an accidental fire in the cellar, a sidewalk for the kids in the new subdivision to walk to school on, rats in the alley, a street light at the curve of the cul-de-sac for the babysitter to go safely to her car.

Property taxes, water bills, license fees are paid right around the corner, and quite often in cash. There is interface reaction every two weeks at the council meeting, and daily at the police department. To many professionals, these are small matters, but they are matters that have significant meaning to individual citizens. City Hall is the place.

Regrettably, in too many instances, Blacks in our city have not enjoyed the quantity or quality of services that municipal government offers. Very often we have been designated as the causes of city problems and this requires cities to “provide more services” because of us. Invariably, this relates to crisis action in police, fire, and health services. It does not relate to quality, equitable, consistent, initiatory, and preventive services.

I selected a career goal as a city manager rather than political office to become involved in municipal government on an authoritative level. Not too surprisingly, I did not know of the existence of city managers until my junior year in high school. And, I did not recognize the extent of their authority until my junior year in undergraduate college. My ignorance should be incredible considering I was born and raised in Miami, Dade County, Florida, a city, county, and state known for commission-manager governments. It’s a condemnation of the profession that considerable ignorance still abounds.

Dr. Stephen Sweeney of the University of Pennsylvania was a trustee board member at my undergraduate college. He introduced me to city management and asked me to consider Fels Institute for graduate study. I declined law school acceptance for Fels because I was convinced a city manager could do more, consistently and directly, to influence the well-being of Black city dwellers. I still believe this.

The decision to enter city management was made in 1963, before the March on Washington and before the Civil Rights Bill. At the time, I thought it was wishful thinking. I was able to attain the goal because of the courage of a few men: Stephen Sweeney and Thomas Davy, also of the University of Pennsylvania; Norman Hickey and Charles Jackson of Daytona Beach, Florida; Fred Clagett and Murray Fuller of Richland, Washington; James Johnson of Kansas City, Missouri; and Edward Bivins of Inkster, Michigan.

These men provided the information and/or made the personal contact that enabled others to see me and thus review my qualifications. I want to hope that actual appointments came as a direct result of the qualifications. One never knows.

Because of the direct and aggressive political actions of Blacks, it is no longer wishful thinking to believe that minorities will assume upper level administrative positions and municipal government. It is a fact that our urban centers are becoming increasingly Black. As a result, Blacks will attain political office and thus be able to influence the employment of minorities in administrative and supervisory positions.

The invalid excuses of civil service, unions, and “not lowering the standards” will be exposed. The quality of service does not have to be diminished. Civil service and unions will be positive agencies to provide equitable means of employment to all, rather than negative mechanisms to prevent entrance into the better paying jobs. As suburban towns develop, minorities will be among the population, and their involvement will follow the trend set in the central cities.

It was difficult for me, in 1963, to foresee the day that I would become a city manager. That I have attained that goal in a city that has a substantial Black population, but with a majority white population, is not too surprising now. Our country has recognized that the talents needed in our cities are to be obtained from whatever sources are available. This recognition enables minority group persons to be a part of the municipal management scene.

How should other minority group members approach the field, and what are the particular problems or aids? I think it is still very difficult for many of our citizens to give freely to a minority group member the authority and power that can come with a strong city manager. Because the city manager, if he is aggressive enough, can initiate certain programs which of necessity may be unequal but equitable, there is always the fear that someone will lose out.

Therefore, I believe that Blacks will have a better chance to enter local government by running for elective office. Elective office carries an aura of something that is temporary. It means that we will put that person in for two or four years to let him prove himself. On the other hand, to appoint a city manager, one must assume beforehand that he does possess those capabilities that the elective official is going to be given a chance to prove that he has.

The principal problem that minority group members would have in trying to attain a city manager goal is that one city has only one manager—which means that all of the chips are laid on the table at one time. I do not believe as a result that a minority group member has an equal chance with whites who may be applying for the same post period to begin with, many managers are selected as a result of personal comments or recommendations that usually come with visibility.

The first requirement, therefore, is for the minority group aspirant to become visible. That can be achieved by attendance at the “right schools,” attendance at the “right conferences,” and personal contact with the “right people”—these being people highly respected in urban affairs.

I think it is incumbent upon ICMA, as one of the prominent organizations existing solely for professionals in municipal government, to place emphasis on active programs which effectively will encourage minority group members to train for and become professional managers and municipal government. ICMA does not have the privilege of deciding who comes into its ranks as a city manager. Individual city councils select their city managers, usually without knowledge of, or regard for, ICMA.

As long as this right remains with city councils, they will select those persons whom they want. This persons may not possess the traditional qualifications that ICMA assumes its members have but after these persons are appointed they are, indeed, city managers. I am glad this is the case, because I feel certain that the field would not be open to many capable people if prerequisites were set by a professional association imbued with a desire to perpetuate its own select group. Some of our most die-hard racists are city managers.

There are some things, however, that ICMA can do to influence the entrance of minority group members into its ranks. My assumption is that this is really what ICMA wants. One program can be a visitation program strictly to Black, undergraduate colleges. ICMA teams can visit these colleges and introduce prospective students to city management. ICMA then can provide financial assistance through scholarships or loans for these students to enter graduate public administration schools. To reach those people who are now out of school and already are involved in some level of municipal government, ICMA can sponsor institutes specifically geared to minority group members to acquaint them with the profession.

Perhaps, the most important thing that can be done is for individual city managers to assume individual roles and provide opportunities to minority group members, to work with them as interns and assistants. ICMA as an organization need only play a strong motivating role in getting city managers to do so. However, ICMA may go further and provide financial assistance to those cities in the form of 50 percent of pay to those minority assistants working for city managers, and providing awards to managers who excel in this area.


NOVEMBER 1975 | The Minority Executive—Which Way, ICMA?

By Elijah B. Rogers, Assistant City Manager, Berkeley, California

Municipal management is possibly one of the least understood professions in the country, particularly in the minority community. It needs to be recognized for what it is—an important and influential profession capable of functioning as an effective catalyst for change.

It is incumbent upon those of us dedicated to meaningful institutional change in this country to realize that success depends as much on a commitment by the local levels of government as it does on the same commitment from the state and national levels. The council-manager form of government is one of the fastest growing forms of local government. Yet, until recently, little effort has been directed towards eliminating racial barriers which historically have excluded Black and other minority participation, i.e., meaningful positions.

Recent trends have resulted in eliminating many of the more obvious barriers, and minorities are beginning to have some impact on local government as they assume responsible political and administrative positions. As a Black man serving as assistant city manager and what I consider to be one of the most innovative, creative, and diverse cities in America, I think it is essential that minorities be made aware of the realities of local government. For example, as assistant city manager of Berkeley, California, I am responsible for a budget totaling approximately $50 million and 1,400 employees.

In Berkeley alone, we have Blacks in the following positions: city attorney; director of personnel; director of recreation, parks, and community services; and a recently appointed Black female as director of housing and development. This latter position is significant because it is one of the most responsible positions held by a female in local government in the country which does not deal solely with social services and community relations-type duties.

The city council has made a commitment to the implementation of a sound housing conservation policy. An indication of that commitment is the funding of the Pilot Rehabilitation Project through the use of general fund monies totaling $550,000 for use by project area residents who are non-bankable. This is one of the few voluntary housing rehabilitation programs in the nation using general fund monies to create a revolving municipal loan fund to rehabilitate homes. This project also is administered by a female who happens to be Black. There is no question that minorities can make a significant contribution to the management of urban communities. This is being demonstrated in cities throughout our country.

ICMA is committed to identifying and placing minorities in key positions in local government through the Minority Executive Placement Program. This program represents a significant first step in the association’s efforts to assist local governments in utilizing and developing the resources of their citizenry.

ICMA’s second step in this behalf should include commitment to assist minorities who have attained positions in local government to develop their full potential through other association-sponsored programs such as the Academy for Professional Development. An important aspect of any meaningful program must necessarily include a mechanism for the progression of the more capable minorities to the policy-making levels for which their training, expertise, and expectations have prepared them.

Presently, ICMA has no minority representatives on its executive board despite the availability of several eminently qualified persons. Such under-utilization of these capable minorities is, at best, another example of hypocrisy. If the association is to continue as a viable organization which fulfills the needs of all of its members as well as their constituents, minority representation on the board and in top staff positions is essential. And my view, ICMA can ill afford to rest on past laurels, and conduct the business of its membership as an exclusive private club for white males only.

Positive change is possible. For example, John Taylor, Berkeley’s city manager, has delegated much of his authority to me. This is a significant step for a white administrator to take. However, the city has not fallen apart since this action was taken 16 months ago; in fact, many of our citizens feel that Berkeley is a better administered city now than it has ever been in the past. Obviously, I cannot take all the credit for this, but I am happy to have played a key role during this period in Berkeley’s development.

I challenge the members of this profession to demonstrate the spirit of the Bicentennial, the association’s Code of Ethics, and their own good judgment as to the importance of extending these few examples into numbers that approach true equality of opportunity.




JUNE 1982 | A Message to Young Black Administrators

By John P. Bond, City Manager, Petersburg, Virginia

Life in this country, until recent demonstrations by the current presidential administration, has ever so slowly moved upward in terms of man’s position relative to Abraham Maslow’s needs hierarchy. The lack of sensitive professional management, the presence of racism, and economic recession have long preoccupied our nation’s development. It is significant that we current and future Black urban administrators not forget from whence we came—over 350 years ago, dragged to this country in chains to be sold into slavery. It was unlawful to teach us to read. We were separated from our families in a system that brutalized and dehumanized both the master and the slave.

We now find that some of us have walked at the hallowed halls of institutions of higher education and have been exposed to more learning experiences than we even recognize. If, for a moment, we think that by virtue of these educational exposures alone we are prepared for the fast-paced, economically oriented, insensitive environment, racially charged as it is ... we’re going to suffer a long time before we succeed. If, on the other hand, we realized that our exposures have, at best, been peripheral, we just might be a few years ahead of our contemporaries.

The elderly have been their way and are concerned now with being left in relative comfort. The middle aged are caught up in a seemingly selfish struggle that has caused many an honest and principled person to abandon both those virtues. You, the younger generation, should be seeking yourselves. Your next professional goal should focus on who you are, where you have been, and what you think you are prepared to accomplish. It is hoped that most of you have taken your learning experiences as seriously as they were intended, and as a result you know what you know. Equally important, you know what you don’t know. I trust that you are familiar with the difference between principle and principal and between capital and capitol. Let me emphasize that the learning process is never ending…that is, of course, if you let it be.

Prepare yourself—

• Academically.

• Emotionally.

• Spiritually.

• Psychologically.

• Technically.

• Politically.

Surround yourself with theory as well as practical experience. Strive for unparalleled excellence, for we continue to have to demonstrate that we are better just to be equal. Drink from the fountain of knowledge until your intellect is satiated.

The management role is one of the most responsible of human tasks, for without leadership there are no organizations and without organizations society is in chaos. A measure of the effectiveness of every public administrator is that administrator’s understanding of human motivation. Organizations are made up of people and, therefore, people problems. You simply have to be psychologist, sociologist, technician, an economist while maintaining a credible objectivity.

There is no “special” training of which young Black administrators should avail themselves. Quite the contrary, you already have an edge and if you marshal your resources, can corner the market. You already know what it is like to be oppressed...you have lived through the extremely tough times of having to do without. So much of your practical background has been personal; you have merely reinforced it with theory and empiricism. Now, do not for a moment assume that the road is not rocky nor the hill extremely steep.

What many white people do not understand or accept is the fact that skin color has such a pervasive impact on every Black that its subordinates every other consideration. Skin color makes us Black folk the most conspicuous minority in this country. Blacks and whites not only look different, but come from different environments which condition us differently and make communication and understanding difficult to achieve.

Many whites, who find it easy to philosophically accept the fact that Black professionals are beginning to rub shoulders with them competitively, experience a measure of difficulty and even antagonism when they realize the differences are more deep-rooted than just skin color. They need to understand this point, for it indicates the need for total organizational and even increased guidance to help Blacks adjust to what are often alien sets of norms and behavioral requirements. One of the phenomena that develops in the informal structure of every organization is a set of behavioral and personal norms that facilitates communication and aids cohesiveness. Moreover, because this “informal organization” is built on white norms, it tends to reinforce the black-white differences just mentioned, and thus rejects or virtually destroys all but the most persistent Blacks.

I do not say that you as a Black administrator are to be pampered and sheltered rather than challenged. All managers must accept the risk of failure in order to receive the rewards of achievement. I do not say that once the Black community has achieved its rightful place in the American economy and judicial system, its members will no longer need “special consideration” because the problems of the Black community will no longer be a “special problem.” Your open eyes, your open ears, your open minds, and your closed mouths are going to afford you the opportunity to learn from your ongoing everyday operational environmental base.

You are going to get involved in every aspect of the municipal operation to the extent that through your aggressive pursuit of a broad and experiential base, you will command a premium. You will not search for the easy solution to difficult problems, nor will you reinvent the wheel resolving challenges. You will perfect your written, verbal, and interpersonal skills to that level of comfort that is wholly representative of nothing less than your very best effort. You will prove that perseverance is not merely a noun, but a way of life. You will not make the mistake that so many before you have with respect to trying to manage from behind a desk in an office that represents a series of filters between you and your community and its problems. No, no...you will avail yourself of a clipboard, refined mobile electronic communications, and transportation so that you can and will stay in touch with the pulse of your entire community. Your adherence to the highest code of ethics will present you as head and shoulders above those who would sacrifice principle, honor, and candor for personal aggrandizement.

I say to you now that the citizens in the majority of your communities want efficient, effective, affordable government and they really don’t much care who delivers it. Further, they have seen governmental units, which were managed by whites, involved in questionable legal activities and may even be saying, for whatever reason, “Give me a change, even a change in color; it certainly can’t be any worse than what we have been exposed to and, who knows, it may even be honest.”

If I can lend any more direction, I would say that it is every Black administrator’s obligation to self and to society to take a brother or sister with you through your own learning and developmental process. You cannot afford to think that whereas you are an administrator who happens to be Black, you are also a Black administrator.